Table of Contents
Teaching and Learning Theory
– Teaching theories provide knowledge about assumptions and guidelines for organizing teaching activities. These theories offer a scientific basis for planning and evaluating teaching.
– Kerlinger (1965) defines a teaching theory as a set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that present a systematic way of specifying relationships among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting teaching outcomes.
Mental Discipline Theories
– The earliest mental-discipline theories were based on the premise that the main justification for teaching was not for its own sake but for training intelligence, attitudes, and values.
– In classical times, education aimed to produce a citizen trained in a restricted number of subjects such as grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.
– Learning was based on imitation and memorization, emphasizing the intellectual authority of the teacher.
– In later centuries, it was assumed that the study of Greco-Roman literature and philosophy had a liberalizing effect on students.
Constructivism Theories
– Constructivism is based on observation and scientific study about how individuals learn.
– According to this theory, individuals construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiences and reflection.
– Constructivism transforms students from passive recipients of information into active participants in the learning process.
– Constructivist teachers encourage students to assess how activities help them gain understanding.
– This theory is often misunderstood as compelling students to reinvent knowledge. Instead, it emphasizes understanding through experience.
Naturalism Theories
– Naturalism emphasizes the natural or real self and rejects spiritualism.
– Naturalists value actual facts, situations, and realities, viewing nature as the ultimate reality.
– Jean Jacques Rousseau (18th-century philosopher) was a prominent proponent of naturalism, advocating education that aligns with the nature of the child.
– Naturalists argue that teaching methods should be experience-based, involving pupil activity.
– Educational activities should be enjoyable, with no place for formal classrooms, textbooks, curricula, or examinations.
Apperception Theories
– This theory assumes that human learning involves building associations between ideas and experiences in the mind.
– Inspired by John Locke’s (17th-century philosopher) philosophy, this theory suggests that the mind begins devoid of ideas.
– Johann Friedrich Herbart (19th-century German philosopher) contributed significantly by proposing a mental mechanism that determines which ideas become conscious and which remain subconscious based on circumstances.
– This process, called apperception, involves associating new ideas with existing ones.
– Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget later argued that assimilation alone was insufficient; accommodation—modifying existing ideas to incorporate new information—was also necessary.
Steps of Apperception Theories
1. Preparation: The teacher begins the lesson with something familiar to the class.
2. Presentation: New material is introduced.
3. Association: The new is compared and connected with the old (the stage of apperception).
4. Generalization: The teacher presents other instances of the new idea.
5. Application: Students individually apply the ideas to further material in a problem-solving phase.
Classical Conditioning Theories
– According to behaviorist theories, learning is demonstrated through the ability to perform new behaviors established through goal-oriented practices.
– Edward Thorndike proposed three main laws: the law of effect, the law of readiness, and the law of exercise.
– Ivan Pavlov (Russian physiologist) introduced classical conditioning, emphasizing learning through association.
– This type of learning involves replacing a natural stimulus (e.g., food) with an artificial stimulus (e.g., a bell) to evoke a natural response.
– Teachers can apply this theory by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety and build new associations.
Behaviorist Theories
– Behaviorist theories offer a comprehensive approach to learning by developing connections between stimuli and responses.
– These theories stress the importance of observable and measurable objectives.
– Teachers play a crucial role in identifying desired behavioral changes and structuring lessons to achieve them.
– Behaviorism has significantly influenced modern educational practices.
Operant Conditioning Theories
– B.F. Skinner (20th-century psychologist) introduced operant conditioning, which emphasizes reinforcement in learning.
– Skinner argued that learning is active and involves using previously acquired vocabulary, terminology, and rules in problem-solving.
– Reinforcement (e.g., rewards) helps combine stimulus learning with active problem-solving.
– However, operant conditioning alone cannot fully explain school learning, as learners are not merely responders.
Cognitive Theories
– Cognitive theories focus on knowing and thinking.
– These theories suggest that perceiving and doing, shown through manipulation and play, precede the capacity to symbolize, preparing students for comprehensive understanding.
– Cognitive theories assume a common sequence of thought, including intellectual interest, problem exploration, and the formation of appropriate ideas.
Maturation and Readiness Theories
– Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget emphasized that cognitive development depends on biological maturity and social interactions.
– Piaget argued that children must reach a certain level of readiness to learn.
– Maria Montessori claimed that children experience sensitive periods suited for acquiring specific knowledge, such as language or motor skills.
– Teachers should provide appropriate materials and activities based on a child’s readiness.
Structural Theories
– The second half of the 20th century saw a revival of Gestalt psychology’s concept of structured experience.
– This theory emphasizes that the whole of an experience is greater than the sum of its parts.
– Jean Piaget improved on Gestalt notions by suggesting that thought structures become more differentiated and adaptable with experience.
– Noam Chomsky proposed that innate language structures exist, similar to Piaget’s idea of thought structures.
– Teaching should align with the natural perspectives of disciplines, such as viewing economics from an economist’s perspective or language from a linguist’s viewpoint.
– While these ideas are compelling, they have not been widely implemented in school practices.
Questions and Answers
- “According to this theory” In classical times, the ideal product of education was a citizen trained in the disciplined study of restricted number of subjects-grammar, logic rhetoric, geometry, music and astronomy”. Name the theory.
(a) Constructivism Theory
(b) Mental Discipline Theory
(c) Apperception Theory
(d) Behaviourism Theory
Correct Answer: (b) Mental Discipline Theory
Explanation: The Mental Discipline Theory emphasizes training the mind through classical subjects to create disciplined thinkers. - Which of the following is the earliest theory of teaching?
(a) Mental discipline theory
(b) Naturalistic theory
(c) Apperception theory
(d) All of these
Correct Answer: (a) Mental discipline theory
Explanation: Mental Discipline Theory is the oldest teaching approach, originating from classical times. - What is the mode of learning according to Mental Discipline theory?
(a) Montessori method
(b) Case study method
(c) Imitation and memorizing
(d) Humanistic method
Correct Answer: (c) Imitation and memorizing
Explanation: The Mental Discipline Theory focuses on rote learning and imitation to sharpen cognitive skills. - Constructivism can be defined as
(a) Philosophy of learning which assumes that learning is an active process where learners internally construct knowledge
(b) The teacher-student relationship where the teacher constructs knowledge and imparts it to students
(c) A process of learning where there is little inquiry and much hands-on experience
(d) A teaching process that is almost impossible to implement
Correct Answer: (a) Philosophy of learning which assumes that learning is an active process where learners internally construct knowledge
Explanation: Constructivism highlights the learner’s active role in constructing their knowledge through experience and inquiry. - Constructivism as a theory:
(a) focuses on the role of imitation
(b) emphasizes the role of the learner in constructing their own view of the world
(c) emphasizes on memorizing and testing through recall
(d) emphasizes on the dominant role of the teacher
Correct Answer: (b) emphasizes the role of the learner in constructing their own view of the world
Explanation: Constructivism prioritizes the learner’s active engagement and perspective-building over teacher-led instruction. - Which of the following theory assumed that human learning consisted of building up association between different ideas and experiences?
(a) Naturalistic theory
(b) Apperception theory
(c) Cognitive theory
(d) Traditional theory
Correct Answer: (b) Apperception theory
Explanation: Apperception Theory explains how new knowledge is linked to pre-existing ideas for better understanding. - Who of the following translated a sequence of steps presumed to be required to carry out a lesson?
(a) Piaget
(b) Herbart
(c) Freud
(d) Pestalozzi
Correct Answer: (b) Herbart
Explanation: Johann Herbart developed systematic steps for lesson delivery, forming the basis for instructional design. - Apperception is a mechanism by which
(a) new ideas associated with existing ideas
(b) experiments can be done
(c) case study can be studied
(d) none of the above
Correct Answer: (a) new ideas associated with existing ideas
Explanation: Apperception links new concepts to prior knowledge, helping learners integrate and understand information. - In classical theory of conditioning, the learner learns to respond to a
(a) original stimuli
(b) other than original stimuli
(c) for both original and other stimuli
(d) not for any stimuli
Correct Answer: (b) other than original stimuli
Explanation: Classical conditioning involves responding to stimuli different from the original, as demonstrated by Pavlov’s experiments. - The classical conditioning theory was discovered by
(a) B.F. Skinner
(b) Pavlov
(c) Jean Piaget
(d) Morrison
Correct Answer: (b) Pavlov
Explanation: Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning through experiments involving dogs and salivation responses. - Conditioning theories are
(a) adequate to explain school learning
(b) not wholly adequate to explain school learning
(c) involve naturalistic theories
(d) none of the above
Correct Answer: (b) not wholly adequate to explain school learning
Explanation: Conditioning theories are limited in explaining complex learning processes and conceptual understanding. - In operant conditioning
(a) Voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences.
(b) It is more important to school work
(c) It seeks to tune the learning situation to the sequences of the complete act of thought and to arrange, simplify and organise the subject matter accordingly.
(d) Both ‘a’ and ‘b’
Correct Answer: (d) Both ‘a’ and ‘b’
Explanation: Operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviour influenced by consequences and is applicable to school contexts. - Readiness theories of learning lean heavily on the concept of maturation in
(a) biological and mental development
(b) social development
(c) psychological development
(d) All of the above
Correct Answer: (a) biological and mental development
Explanation: Readiness theories emphasize that learning depends on the learner’s level of biological and mental maturity. - Periods of sensitivity corresponding to certain stages explained by
(a) Maria Montessori
(b) Jean Piaget
(c) Sigmund Freud
(d) None of the above
Correct Answer: (a) Maria Montessori
Explanation: Montessori highlighted sensitive periods where children are most receptive to learning specific skills. - The learning theory given by Jean Piaget is based on the idea of
(a) readiness
(b) experience
(c) response
(d) reward
Correct Answer: (a) readiness
Explanation: Piaget’s theory emphasizes readiness as a crucial factor in cognitive development stages. - The concept of wholeness given by
(a) Gestalt psychologist
(b) Cognitive psychologist
(c) Humanistic psychologist
(d) Structural psychologist
Correct Answer: (a) Gestalt psychologist
Explanation: Gestalt psychology introduced the idea of wholeness, focusing on the integration of parts into a unified whole. - Idea of innate language structure is given by
(a) Maria Montessori
(b) Jean Piaget
(c) Gestalts
(d) Noam Chomsky
Correct Answer: (d) Noam Chomsky
Explanation: Chomsky proposed the concept of an innate language acquisition device (LAD) enabling language learning. - Accommodation means
(a) association of new ideas with the existing ideas
(b) modifying and adding to the existing idea when new information is added
(c) previous knowledge of learners
(d) position reinforcement
Correct Answer: (b) modifying and adding to the existing idea when new information is added
Explanation: Accommodation involves altering existing schemas to incorporate new information, as per Piaget’s theory. - What is sign learning?
(a) Learning to recognize the name of an object or a foreign word
(b) Learning to explore
(c) Creative thinking
(d) Convergent thinking
Correct Answer: (a) Learning to recognize the name of an object or a foreign word
Explanation: Sign learning refers to associating symbols or signs with objects or concepts. - Which theory of teaching emphasizes on “Acting and doing”?
(a) Naturalistic theories
(b) Cognitive theories
(c) Behaviourist theories
(d) Mental discipline theories
Correct Answer: (a) Naturalistic theories
Explanation: Naturalistic theories promote experiential learning through action and hands-on activities. - Learning in which voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents?
(a) Classical conditioning
(b) Operant conditioning
(c) Sign learning
(d) None of the above
Correct Answer: (b) Operant conditioning
Explanation: Operant conditioning involves modifying voluntary behaviours through reinforcement or punishment. - According to structural theories, Piaget emphasized on
(a) innate language structures
(b) writing structures
(c) thought structures
(d) All of the above
Correct Answer: (c) thought structures
Explanation: Piaget’s structural theories focus on cognitive structures that underlie thinking and understanding. - “Acting and Doing” is whose view among the following?
(a) Piaget
(b) Vygotsky
(c) Noam Chomsky
(d) Rousseau
Correct Answer: (d) Rousseau
Explanation: Rousseau emphasized experiential learning through action and interaction with the natural environment. - Teaching theories that are mainly concerned with changes in behaviour of learners after teaching
(a) Behaviourist theories
(b) Mental discipline theory
(c) Structural theories
(d) Cognitive theory
Correct Answer: (a) Behaviourist theories
Explanation: Behaviourist theories focus on observable behaviour changes as a result of teaching interventions. - Which teaching theory is mainly concerned with knowing and thinking?
(a) Behaviourist theories
(b) Structural theories
(c) Cognitive theories
(d) Mental discipline theories
Correct Answer: (c) Cognitive theories
Explanation: Cognitive theories prioritize understanding the processes involved in knowing, thinking, and understanding concepts.